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Bhaktapur- The living City 

Among the three major cities of the Kathmandu Valley, Bhaktapur, to this date, is the living representation of how the entire Kathmandu Valley would have looked like during the medieval periods. The city is celebrated for its glorious architecture; sky-high temples built in pagoda style - which is believed to be the stairway to the heaven, fine clay pottery, and massive royal courtyards whose existence date back to the 12th century, where devotees, still, celebrate their pre-historic festivals by equal amount of gusto and passion.

Bhaktapur used to be the ruling throne of the Kathmandu Valley until the king, Yakshya Malla, in 1482, divided the kingdom between his three sons, eventually fading the strength of unity and losing the nation to the Shah dynasty from Gorkha. But, before losing the kingdom to Shah kings, Bhaktapur was renowned for its Malla Yuddha; a fierce combat between two wrestlers. Hence, one can observe muscular craved wrestlers, as the trademark of the city, into various temples of as the guardian of the city and of the Gods.

Bhaktapurians are proud inhabitants of their city and culture. Most of the women would be seen in their traditional, Newari, attire, who would do their laundry in public - but artistically crafted - taps, farmers would be seen here and there carrying vegetables, as the city is also known as ‘Khwopa or Bhadgaon’ in Newari dialect. This city has preserved the Newari value as a mother would keep their children safe, so it would be not hard to feel the aroma of ancient Newari culture once you reach the Bhaktapur.

The city is considered as the neat city, compared to other two cities, where tradition and modernization walk in sustainability.  

Bhaktapur is the smallest among the 77 districts of Nepal. Bhaktapur comprises dense collects of temples, monuments, courtyards and traditional houses constructed during different periods of history. Ancient culture, tradition and ritual are still conserved and they reflect in daily activities of the local Newar community. Bhaktapur is one of the tourist destinations of Kathmandu valley. Bhaktapur used to be the center of Nepal until the 17th century. Some of the major tourist destinations and monuments have been listed as the UNESCO world heritage site in Bhaktapur. Foreign tourists have to pay an entry fee to visit this historical town. Bhaktapur offers its visitors an opportunity to closely observe the ancient architecture, arts, and culture that goes back Malla periods. The Nyatapola Temple, Bhaktapur Durbar Square, Changunarayan Temple, 55-window palace, Dattatraya area, and Sidda Pokhari are its major attractions. Bhaktapur is also well-known for ‘Juju Dhau’ (Royal Sweet Yoghurt), earthenware potteries, and the artistic wood carvings.

Bhaktapur Durbar Square is one of the major tourist attractions of Kathmandu valley. It served as the Capital of Nepal during Mall kingdom until 1769 AD. The courtyards, temples, palace buildings, statues and monuments inside the square were constructed in different eras by Newari artist. Some of the major monuments and temples inside the Bhaktapur Durbar Square are the Golden Gate., 55- Window palace Big Bell, Dog barking Bell, Siddhilaxmi Temple, Taleju Bhawani Temple, Statue of King Bhupendra Mall, National art Gallery and Vatshala Temple and etc. In Newari dialect, the Bhaktapur Durbar Square is known as “Layaku.”

The 55-Window Palace is one of the most important works of arts in the Bhaktapur Durbar Square. It was build during the time of King Bhupendra Mall in the 17th century. The 3-storied palace acknowledged its name for its 55 windows with superb designs carved on them.

Taleju Bhawai was the mother goddess of Mall Kings. It is believed that Taleju Bhawani was the mother goddess of Lord Indra, the God of rain. In Treta Yug (Silver Age), demon Meghraj vanquished Indra in a battle and brought the mother goddess, Taleju Bhawani from Indralok to Lanka, the kingdom of his father Rawan. When Rawan abducted Sita (The wife of Lord Ram), Lord Ram attacked Lanka to bring back Sita. He brought back Sita along with Taleju Bhawani. The story goes that that idol of Taleju Bhawani was first brought to Bhaktapur from Simrangad during the era of king Rudra (Jaya Rudra Mall) Mall in the 14th century. At the time, Bhaktapur was the capital of Kathmandu valley. It is also believed that the idol of Taleju Bhawani was brought to Bhaktapur by the then King Yaksha Mall in 15th Century for protection of the city from bad energy and evil spirit. After Yaksha Mall divided the kingdom among his sons, Tajelu Bhawani was also installed in all three kingdoms. It is also believed that Kumari is the incarnation of Goddess Taleju Bhawani when he arrived in Nepal upon his exile.

King Bhupatindra Mall made a great contribution in the development of Bhaktapur. Born to King Jitamitra Malla and Queen Lalmati in 1674 AD, King Bhupitandra Malla ruled the kingdom of Bhaktapur for 26 years. During his reign, the kingdom prospered in the field of Newari arts and crafts. The 55-window palace and Nyatapola Temple were built during his rule. He also made an important contribution in renovation and restoration works of various temples and monuments. There is statue of King Bhupatindra Malla a top of stone pillar paying homage to the guardian figure goddess Taleju Bhawani in front of the Golden Gate. It is said that the statue was also constructed to raise public belief towards the Mother Goddess Taleju Bhawani. King Bhupatindra Mall was fond of literature, arts and culture and he contributed largely in these fields during his reign. He died in 1722 AD.

The temple of Nyatapola is situated in the courtyard of Taumadi Square. It is the tallest and one of the most impressive temples of Nepal. The temple is dedicated to goddess Siddhilaxmi, who is represented as the manifestation of wealth of Hindu mythology. It was built by King Bhupatindra Malla in 17th century. It is said that the king has personally carried bricks for the construction of this temple. The stairway leading up to the temple flanked guardian figures of animals, humans and gods. It is believed that the elephant above the strong man standing on the front is ten times powerful than the man and it continues so on with each creature on the stairs. Only the temple priests are allowed inside. The temple is opened once every year. Nyatapola survived the earthquakes in 1943 and 2015 AD with minor damage to the ceiling of the fifth floor.

The temple of Bhairavnath is a famous ancient temple located close to the historic five storied temple. The temple houses the idols of Bhairavnath and Betame. There is a popular legend regarding the origin of this temple that says Bhairavnath, who was attending the Lingo Festival of Bhaktapur in a disguise of a man, was spotted by the royal priest Aachaju and made the attempt to capture him on his king’s order. Bhairavnath sensed the attempt being made by the king’s men to capture him and tried to escape sinking himself on earth. Aachaju cut off Bhairavnath’s head with this Tantric sickle. The priest was later overcome by regret for his action and installed the served head of Bhairavnath in the temple. The temple of Bhairavnath was rebuilt after it was demolished in 1934 AD; every year during the festival of Bisket Jatra, the idol of Bhairavnath is paraded around the town for two days in a chariot procession. Bisket Jatra is one of the main festivals observed in Bhaktapur.

The Dattatraya temple is a three-storied pagoda styled temple constructed in the 15th century by King Yakshya Mall. The temple houses an idol of Dattatraya, a unified form of three principle Hindu gods, Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva. The temple is believed to have been constructed out of a single three. Every year, a huge number of female devotees throng this temple during the Nepalese calendar month of Shrawan (July-Aug) and Bhadra (Aug-Sept) on the festival of Teej.

The Doleshwor Mahadev temple is located at Sipadol-6, just 4 km south from Jagati of Bhaktapur. This temple is worshiped as the head of the Lord Kedarnath. According to the long-held belief, the head of the deity originated in this place while the remaining part of the body is located in Kedarnath of India. A large rock outcropping amidst green forests is worshiped as a representation of Lord Kedarnath. People can touch and worship the stone deity only three times a year during Shiva Ratri, Akshaya Tritiya, and once on the Nepalese month Bhadra to mark the day the sacred rock was declared the head of Lord Kedarnath Mahadev.

Among seven UNESCO World Heritage Sites in the Kathmandu valley, Changu Narayan Temple is one of them. It lies on the hill top approximately 5 km north of Bhaktapur and 22 Km from Kathmandu. It lies at the altitude of 1540m from the sea level. The double roof temple is dedicated to Vishnu in his incarnation as Narayan. Believed to have been constructed during the Lichchhivi period, Changu Narayan is regarded as the oldest temple of Nepal. The popular consensus and recorded ancient inscription suggest that the temple was built before 6th century B.S. This is the best exemplified by “Bijaya Stambha” at the time of Lichchhavi King Mahadev in 521 B.S. There is a traditional Newari house on the way to temple that has been turned into the museum where ancient artifacts have kept for display. The main temple houses an idol of lord Vishnu in a form of Narayan. It is the shrine of one of the four Narayan in Kathmandu valley. The temple premises has one of the finest displays of stone sculpture of lord Vishnu in different incarnation, making it one of the best places to study about Hindu iconography. Temples of Kileshwor Mahadev, Laxmi Narayan, Newa Durga and Krishna are also on the premises.

Nagarkot - The second-highest point on the Kathmandu Valley rim, Nagarkot, at an altitude of 2,175, offers panoramic views of the Himalayas and Mt. Everest. It lies 20 km northeast of Bhaktapur. The area offers hiking trails that lead into Tamang villages.

Thimi - Thimi is a traditional Newar city noted for its a vegetable garden and handicrafts. It lies about 5 km west of Bhaktapur.

Bode - This town, about a 20-minute walk from Thimi, hosts the the river-side shrine of Nil Barahi. Each year on the second day of the Nepalese New Year, the town celebrates the tongue-boring festival, in which a villager has a thin metal spike thrust through his tongue by the temple’s priest. After parading around town carrying a bamboo rack of oil lamps, the spike is removed and packed with mud from the temple floor. If no blood flows, the villager earns great respect for himself and the town; however, if blood flows it is considered a bad omen for the coming year.

Surya Vinayak Shrine - The Surya Vinayak is just a 10 to 20 minute walk from Bhaktapur and attracts visitors and locals praying for good luck to the god Ganesh. The shrine is located in a forest at the top of a hill. 

Culture

There are also many Buddhist monuments and shrines, including Lokeswor Mahavihar, Prasannasheel Mahavihar, Chatu Brahma Mahavihar, Jaya Kirti Mahavihar, Sukra-varna Mahavihar, Dipanker Mahavihar.

Many festivals are celebrated throughout the year to mark the seasons, pay tribute to gods, and remember historical and legendary events. A few of these are:

They also worship crows, dogs, and cows during this festival and set aside one day to honor brothers. The Mha puja, a day of revering one's own body and life, is celebrated on one day of this festival. (October)

Bhaktapur is filled with Hindu and Buddhist religious sites and art. Although the population is primarily Hindu, there are nineteen Buddhist monasteries (Vihars). At Indra Varna Madavihar, built in 1671 and located between Durbar Square and Dattatraya Square, visitors can see two lion statues, a Patinga Hiti (water spout), Tantric wood-carved windows, and prayer wheels. 

* Dashain, the longest festival of the year, lasting 15 days. This festival honors the goddess Devi Durga, who is said to have slain the demon Durga, son of Ruru. Celebrants perform many pujas (offerings) during this festival, including thousands of animal sacrifices. (September/October)

* Gai-Jatra, the Cow Festival. This festival focuses on families in bereavement. Every family who lost a relative in the past year participates in a procession with a cow or a young boy dressed as a cow. The cow, it is believed, helps the deceased reach heaven. (July/August)

* Bisket Jatra, the Nepalese New Year celebration, in which chariots are pulled through the streets and ultimately a tug of war over them determines who will be blessed with good fortune in the coming year. This celebration is also observed with picnics and other private get-togethers. (April)

* Tihar, the festival of lights, honors Laxmi, the goddess of wealth. The Nepalese light up their homes with candles, oil lamps, and other lights to invite the goddess Laxmi in. 

Getting There & Away

Tourists arrive in the Kathmandu Valley via Tribhuvan International Airport. Airlines flying into this airport include Nepal Airlines, Biman Bangladesh Airlines, China South-West Airlines, Druk Air, lndian Airlines, Pakistan International Airlines, Singapore Airlines and Thai lnternational etc. 
From the airport, which lies 5.5 km east of Kathmandu, one can take taxis or buses or rent a car with a driver. One can take them back to Kathmandu from just outside Bhaktapur as well.

Getting Around

Inside the city limits of Bhaktapur, motor vehicles are not allowed. Outside the city limits, buses and taxis are available.

Shitake Mushroom Farming

Shiitake (Lentinus edodus) is a newly introduced mushroom in Nepal. Because of its high profit, low labour and land requirements compared to Pleurotus and Agaricus it gaining  popularity among farmers.

 Alnus and Castonopsis are the most suitable woods available in Nepal for shiitake mushrooms production.The logs are planted with the spores in spring and after the mycelium has grown through the wood, fruit bodies of shiitake begin to grow out on the logs. With this method, steady production is obtained.

Shiitake production is started from October to November and will continue up to 3–6 years, depending upon care. The demand for the mushroom is very high and the current production is not sufficient.

Shiitake may be used as a meat substitute in vegetarian dishes and is valued for its full-bodied flavour, dark colour, and meaty texture. In 2014, wholesale market prices for shiitake ranged from NPR 500 to NPR 850 per kilogram. Growers generally received between NPR 400 to NPR 750 per kilogram for fresh, well-formed mushrooms.

The market for log-grown specialty mushrooms continues to develop in Kathmandu Valley. Fine restaurants (particularly those specializing in Continental, French, or Asian cuisine), along with organic or wholefood markets, are currently the main market outlets. Direct markets, including farmers markets and CSAs, are also feasible.

Additional options for marketing Kathmandu Valley log-grown fresh shiitake mushrooms include locally owned supermarkets. Dried mushrooms can be sold at local outlets, as well as by mail order or on the Internet.

Value-added products, such as soups or dip mixes, are an additional possibility. Shiitake is known for its medicinal as well as its culinary value, so there may be possible markets in the pharmaceutical or nutriceutical industries for large-scale producers.

Log-grown mushrooms are considered superior in flavour and have a longer shelf-life compared to those grown in artificial media. Additionally, log-grown mushrooms may contain higher percentages of the medicinally active ingredient(s) present in these species. Whether the quality factors are sufficient to outweigh the efficiency factors in the marketplace is uncertain.

Hardwood trees removed from timberland during thinning operations can be used to grow shiitake mushrooms. In addition, when the saw timber is finally harvested, large hardwood limbs are also useful for growing the mushrooms.

The cost of hardwood logs may be varied upon place to place , which will be available from firewood dealers, and timber stand improvement harvesting/thinning operations.

The logs will be maintained in an environment above 40 % moisture and kept fully shaded in the summer. Under natural conditions, shiitake mushrooms fruit in the spring and autumn when temperatures are cool. Tree species selected for shiitake cultivation influence the overall yield of mushrooms and the likelihood of contamination.

Nepal’s history with shiitake is not so long. Cultivated mushrooms were started in 1976, but nowadays it is a fast-growing business due to its high profit. Nepal is also one of the countries where mushrooms can be cultivated throughout the year under natural environmental conditions. But in some hot and cold countries it needs highly sophisticated building. It may not be affordable for farmers.

A small segment of Nepalese agriculture has been commercialized and diversified. This segment, however, is unable to scale up or grow because of the lack of industrialization of the sector. One such sector is mushroom products.

Shiitake mushrooms are cultivated on small-diameter (3 to 8 inch) hardwood logs that have been cut from decay-free, live trees with intact bark. Trees are most commonly inoculated in late winter/early spring (February/March), as soon as possible after felling.

Logs can also be inoculated successfully at the time of leaf drop in the autumn when the food-rich sap is returning to the roots for the winter (October/November). However, the rising sap in the late winter/early spring has higher sugar content and will encourage a more rapid growth of the fungus.

In Nepal, There are only few numbers of small growers of shiitake mushrooms. The demand for mushrooms is very high. This can be the alternative to young people instead of going abroad for employment.

The success of the Shiitake  will make a difference in the community, i.e. providing employment, offering alternative protein, and, most important, making it available to a growing market.https://blog.gfar.net/2016/03/07/yap-proposal-182-shitake-mushroom-farming-ramindra-suwal-nepal/

Floriculture in Nepal

The consumption of cut flowers in the world is worth US$ 13,000 million. The main importers are the USA, Germany, France, UK, Switzerland, Sweden,Norway, the Netherlands, Denmark, Belgium, Italy, Australia, and Japan. Germany is the largest importer, followed by the US, France and Britain. Among the exporters , the Netherlands dominates the world trade (65%), followed by Columbia (12%) and Israel (6%). Thailand holds  sixth position in export of cut flowers (Prasad and Kumar, 2005).In present context  Half of the flowers produced in the world is consumed by western Europe alone and a large expansion in flower consumption is taking place in Eastern Europe,Japan, China, South Korea, Thailand and Indonesia.

Kathmandu valley is the central of Cut flower business in Nepal . The localization is mainly due to access to consumer-orientation and favorable natural conditions. The establishment of such industries takes place wherever consumers with sufficient purchasing powers are living. The existence of most of the star  hotels, big business houses and international houses encourage the establishment of these industries in Kathmandu rather than in other places. Similarly, the topography and climatic conditions prevalent within the valley support the establishment of floricultural enterprises (Chhetri, 1999). Cut flower business has shown steady and continuous growth  in Nepal. Due to urbanization and modernization, the demand of the cut flower has increased tremendously. There is ample scope for promotion of this business within Kathmandu valley as the demand is not fulfilled .Import of cut flowers from india and other countries by Hotels and other consumers can be substituted by  Promotion of domestic production .

Mainly two seasons  production  are prevails for cut flower  in Nepal i.e., summer season and winter season. In summer season, the demand of flower has been fulfilled by the Nepalese grower whereas in winter, wholesalers/retailers import flowers from India, as demand is not achieved by the Nepalese production. During the summer, the demand of the cut flower is accomplished by the production within Kathmandu, Bhaktapur, Lalitpur and nearby area from valley.

Organic Agriculture

A.G. Howard, one of the pioneers of organic agriculture observed farming in India for many years and established  the theory of organic agriculture. The theory provokes for the sustainable farming through balancing the soil by recycling organic materials back to the soil i.e. resource-cycle farming which existed in Asia for over a thousand years. However, modern agriculture has been focusing an economic efficiency without giving much attention on environment. Without doubt; such pursuits followed side effects and the green revolution is one of the example (Murayma, 2001).

Evidences from all over the world shows that the organic farming has increased the crop yield by doubled or trippled in land where resources are poor, diverse and complex. In irrigated condition, if maintained the yield. While, in the industrialized agricultural system, transition to sustainable agriculture could decrease the production per hectare by 10-20% in short form, but provides better level of financial returns of farmers (Yadav, 2001).

Sustainable means keeping efforts/things continuously, that is development without destruction (Dhital et.al. 2005). It is to meet the needs of present without compromising the ability of future generation to meet their own needs (WCED, 1987).

Traditionally organic agriculture has always been practiced in Nepal. Hill farmers depends primary on organic manure (FYM) either as compost prepared from locally available organic materials as a FYM (Budathoki et.al. 1993 cited in Neupane, 2004).

Organic agriculture sector is developing rapidly around the world and is being practiced in approximately 110 countries. World wide land under organic agriculture is estimated to be 30.4 million ha. Nepal has 26 organic farms, but Yadav (2001) reports two certified two farms in Nepal with 125ha land. Accordingly countries with greatest organic area are Australia (12.3 million ha), China (2.3 million ha), Argentina (2.2 million ha) USA (1.6 million ha). and study by IOFAM show that, increase in 1.8 million ha area at the end of 2006.

The global market of organic products is increasing. The estimated sales expanded by 7 to 9% . The higher growths of sales were observed in Western Europe and North America. However, the home of  60% of the world population, Asia has a small market.

Organic certification or guarantee is required in Nepal. International certification is expensive. Affordable verification systems for the farmers should be developed (Bhat, 2005).

Major organic importer countries (like USA, Japan, EU) have developed extensive legislation for organic products to enter into their markets for which certification according to official standard is a precondition (Shakya, 2005).

Organic agriculture offers trade opportunities for farmers in the developing and developed counties. The market of organic product is expected to grow globally in the coming years and high growth rate (from 10-15 to 25-30%) are expected. The organic market expansion makes it possible for farmers to reap the benefits of trade with relatively high price premiums (Yussefi and Willer, 2002 )

POVERTY, INEQUALITY AND LAND REFORM IN NEPAL

The eradication of poverty is the biggest challenge faced by policy makers in Nepal. Poverty is increasingly concentrated among small farmers and agricultural labourers (WB, 2006). Present socio-economic structure of the country reveals that land is the main property and source of income for the majority of Nepalese people. Land reform is important also in the context of incipient industrial and commercial sectors which at present cannot cater for the rapidly growing population. In this respect, increase in agricultural productivity through secure access to land can potentially be one of the most effective approaches to alleviate rural poverty.

Over the last decade aggregate poverty reduced significantly from 42% to 31%. However, the decline was slow in rural areas compared to urban areas and is still high at 35% (WB, 2006). Whilst overall growth increased and overall poverty reduced, the Gini coefficient increased from 34.2 to 41.4, indicating a rise in inequality as the growth was seen most evident in the rich community. The country’s GDP may be constrained by unequal land distribution. For nearly one third of total agricultural land is occupied by 7% of upper households whereas nearly 20% lower households have to survive with less than 3% of total agricultural land (CBS, 2004a).

Land is often misallocated which then hampers agricultural development and perpetuates rural poverty. Those who have land don’t know how to use it most effectively and those who know how to use it, don’t have it. Consequently, the agricultural productivity of the country is much lower compared to other countries in the region (WB, 2006). These all suggest that there is potential for increasing farm production three to four-fold through land and agrarian reform (NPC, 1998). So, proper policy programme to transfer agricultural land from unskilled to skilled farmers through effective land reform program may be an important instrument to alleviate poverty and disparity.

In past fifty years, there have been many attempts to a redistributive land reform program to alleviate poverty and inequality, but without success. The land reform program of 1964 had heightened social and psychological consequences, but had little impact on agrarian structure. The government confiscated and redistributed only a very small fraction of land above the ceiling compared to its

expectation. In 1994 the High Level Land Reform Commission submitted the Badal Commission Report to implement land reform; however no steps were taken to do so. In 2001, another land reform program with a revolutionary tag was announced. The focus of the program was to amend the Land Act 1964 in order to reduce the legal  size of land holding per family.But Thapa (2001) points out that this was merely a political ruse as the political pronouncement was made without weighing up of socioeconomic implications, and exclusive of any schemes and information of land appropriation and redistribution. In conclusion, there has been little progress in the last fifty years in land reform.